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<title>Extensible programming</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Extensible programming</span></span>

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<p>In <a href="Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>, <b>extensible programming</b> is a style of computer programming that focuses on mechanisms to extend the <a href="Programming_language" title="Programming language">programming language</a>, <a href="Compiler" title="Compiler">compiler</a>, and <a href="Runtime_system" title="Runtime system">runtime system</a> (environment). Extensible programming languages, supporting this style of programming, were an active area of work in the 1960s, but the movement was marginalized in the 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-Standish1975_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Standish1975-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Extensible programming has become a topic of renewed interest in the 21st century.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilson2005_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_movement">Historical movement</h2></div>

<p>The first paper usually<sup id="cite_ref-Standish1975_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Standish1975-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sammet1969_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sammet1969-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> associated with the extensible programming language movement is M. <a href="Douglas_McIlroy" title="Douglas McIlroy">Douglas McIlroy</a>'s 1960 paper on <a href="Macro_(computer_science)" title="Macro (computer science)">macros</a> for <a href="High-level_programming_language" title="High-level programming language">high-level programming languages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-McIlroy1960_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McIlroy1960-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another early description of the principle of extensibility occurs in Brooker and Morris's 1960 paper on the <a href="Compiler-compiler" title="Compiler-compiler">compiler-compiler</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Brooker&Morris1962_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brooker&Morris1962-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The peak of the movement was marked by two academic symposia, in 1969 and 1971.<sup id="cite_ref-Christensen&Shaw1969_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Christensen&Shaw1969-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schuman1971_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schuman1971-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1975, a survey article on the movement by Thomas A. Standish<sup id="cite_ref-Standish1975_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Standish1975-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was essentially a post mortem. The <a href="Forth_(programming_language)" title="Forth (programming language)">Forth</a> was an exception, but it went essentially unnoticed.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Character_of_the_historical_movement">Character of the historical movement</h3></div>

<p>As typically envisioned, an extensible language consisted of a base language providing elementary computing facilities, and a <a href="Metalanguage" title="Metalanguage">metalanguage</a> able to modify the base language. A program then consisted of metalanguage modifications and code in the modified base language.

</p><p>The most prominent language-extension technique used in the movement was macro definition. Grammar modification was also closely associated with the movement, resulting in the eventual development of <a href="Adaptive_grammar" title="Adaptive grammar">adaptive grammar</a> <a href="Formalism_(philosophy_of_mathematics)" title="Formalism (philosophy of mathematics)">formalisms</a>. The <a href="Lisp_(programming_language)" title="Lisp (programming language)">Lisp</a> language community remained separate from the extensible language community, apparently because, as one researcher observed,

</p>

<blockquote><p>any programming language in which programs and data are essentially interchangeable can be regarded as an extendible [sic] language. ... this can be seen very easily from the fact that Lisp has been used as an extendible language for years.<sup id="cite_ref-Harrison1969_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harrison1969-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote>

<p>At the 1969 conference, <a href="Simula" title="Simula">Simula</a> was presented as an extensible language.

</p><p>Standish described three classes of language extension, which he named <i><a href="Paraphrase" title="Paraphrase">paraphrase</a></i>, <i>orthophrase</i>, and <i>metaphrase</i> (otherwise paraphrase and metaphrase being <a href="Translation" title="Translation">translation</a> terms).

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Paraphrase" title="Paraphrase">Paraphrase</a> defines a facility by showing how to exchange it for something formerly defined (or to be defined). As examples, he mentions macro definitions, ordinary procedure definitions, grammatical extensions, data definitions, operator definitions, and control structure extensions.</li>

<li>Orthophrase adds features to a language that could not be achieved using the base language, such as adding an <a href="Input/output" title="Input/output">input/output</a> (I/O) system to a base language formerly with no I/O primitives. Extensions must be understood as orthophrase <i>relative</i> to some given base language, since a feature not defined in terms of the base language must be defined in terms of some other language. This corresponds to the modern notion of <a href="Plug-in_(computing)" title="Plug-in (computing)">plug-ins</a>.</li>

<li>Metaphrase modifies the interpretation rules used for pre-existing expressions. This corresponds to the modern notion of <a href="Reflective_programming" title="Reflective programming">reflective programming</a> (reflection).</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Death_of_the_historical_movement">Death of the historical movement</h3></div>

<p>Standish attributed the failure of the extensibility movement to the difficulty of programming successive extensions. A programmer might build a first shell of macros around a base language. Then, if a second shell of macros is built around that, any subsequent programmer must be intimately familiar with both the base language, and the first shell. A third shell would require familiarity with the base and both the first and second shells, and so on. Shielding a programmer from lower-level details is the intent of the <a href="Abstraction_(computer_science)" title="Abstraction (computer science)">abstraction</a> movement that supplanted the extensibility movement.

</p><p>Despite the earlier presentation of Simula as extensible, by 1975, Standish's survey does not seem in practice to have included the newer abstraction-based technologies (though he used a very general definition of extensibility that technically could have included them). A 1978 history of programming abstraction from the invention of the computer until then, made no mention of macros, and gave no hint that the extensible languages movement had ever occurred.<sup id="cite_ref-Guarino1978_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guarino1978-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Macros were tentatively admitted into the abstraction movement by the late 1980s (perhaps due to the advent of <a href="Hygienic_macros" class="mw-redirect" title="Hygienic macros">hygienic macros</a>), by being granted the pseudonym <i>syntactic abstractions</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gabriel1989_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gabriel1989-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_movement">Modern movement</h2></div>

<p>In the modern sense, a system that supports extensible programming will provide <i>all</i> of the features described below.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extensible_syntax">Extensible syntax</h3></div>

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<p>This simply means that the source language(s) to be compiled must not be closed, fixed, or static. It must be possible to add new keywords, concepts, and structures to the source language(s). Languages which allow the addition of constructs with user defined syntax include <a href="Coq_(software)" class="mw-redirect" title="Coq (software)">Coq</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Racket_(programming_language)" title="Racket (programming language)">Racket</a>, <a href="Camlp4" title="Camlp4">Camlp4</a>, OpenC++, <a href="Seed7" title="Seed7">Seed7</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Zingaro2007_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zingaro2007-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Red_(programming_language)" title="Red (programming language)">Red</a>, <a href="Rebol" title="Rebol">Rebol</a>, and Felix. While it is acceptable for some fundamental and intrinsic language features to be immutable, the system must not rely solely on those language features. It must be possible to add new ones.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extensible_compiler">Extensible compiler</h3></div>

<p>In extensible programming, a compiler is not a monolithic program that converts source code input into binary executable output. The compiler itself must be extensible to the point that it is really a collection of plugins that assist with the translation of source language input into <i>anything</i>. For example, an extensible compiler will support the generation of object code, code documentation, re-formatted source code, or any other desired output. The architecture of the compiler must permit its users to "get inside" the compilation process and provide alternative processing tasks at every reasonable step in the compilation process.

</p><p>For just the task of translating source code into something that can be executed on a computer, an extensible compiler should:

</p>

<ul><li>use a plug-in or component architecture for nearly every aspect of its function</li>

<li>determine which language or language variant is being compiled and locate the appropriate plug-in to recognize and validate that language</li>

<li>use formal language specifications to syntactically and structurally validate arbitrary source languages</li>

<li>assist with the semantic validation of arbitrary source languages by invoking an appropriate validation plug-in</li>

<li>allow users to select from different kinds of code generators so that the resulting executable can be targeted for different processors, operating systems, virtual machines, or other execution environment.</li>

<li>provide facilities for error generation and extensions to it</li>

<li>allow new kinds of nodes in the <a href="Abstract_syntax_tree" title="Abstract syntax tree">abstract syntax tree</a> (AST),</li>

<li>allow new values in nodes of the AST,</li>

<li>allow new kinds of edges between nodes,</li>

<li>support the transformation of the input AST, or portions thereof, by some external "pass"</li>

<li>support the translation of the input AST, or portions thereof, into another form by some external "pass"</li>

<li>assist with the flow of information between internal and external passes as they both transform and translate the AST into new ASTs or other representations</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extensible_runtime">Extensible runtime</h3></div>

<p>At runtime, extensible programming systems must permit languages to extend the set of operations that it permits. For example, if the system uses a <a href="Byte-code" class="mw-redirect" title="Byte-code">byte-code</a> interpreter, it must allow new byte-code values to be defined. As with extensible syntax, it is acceptable for there to be some (smallish) set of fundamental or intrinsic operations that are immutable. However, it must be possible to overload or augment those intrinsic operations so that new or additional behavior can be supported.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Content_separated_from_form">Content separated from form</h3></div>

<p>Extensible programming systems should regard programs as data to be processed. Those programs should be completely devoid of any kind of formatting information. The visual display and editing of programs to users should be a translation function, supported by the extensible compiler, that translates the program data into forms more suitable for viewing or editing. Naturally, this should be a two-way translation. This is important because it must be possible to easily process extensible programs in a <i>variety</i> of ways. It is unacceptable for the only uses of source language input to be editing, viewing and translation to machine code. The arbitrary processing of programs is facilitated by de-coupling the source input from specifications of how it should be processed (formatted, stored, displayed, edited, etc.).

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Source_language_debugging_support">Source language debugging support</h3></div>

<p>Extensible programming systems must support the debugging of programs using the constructs of the original source language regardless of the extensions or transformation the program has undergone in order to make it executable. Most notably, it cannot be assumed that the only way to display runtime data is in <i>structures</i> or <i>arrays</i>. The debugger, or more correctly 'program inspector', must permit the display of runtime data in forms suitable to the source language. For example, if the language supports a data structure for a <a href="Business_process" title="Business process">business process</a> or <a href="Work_flow" class="mw-redirect" title="Work flow">work flow</a>, it must be possible for the debugger to display that data structure as a <a href="Fishbone_chart" class="mw-redirect" title="Fishbone chart">fishbone chart</a> or other form provided by a plugin.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2></div>

<ul><li><a href="Camlp4" title="Camlp4">Camlp4</a></li>

<li>Felix</li>

<li><a href="Nemerle" title="Nemerle">Nemerle</a></li>

<li><a href="Rebol" title="Rebol">Rebol</a>

<li><a href="Ruby_(programming_language)" title="Ruby (programming language)">Ruby</a> (<a href="Metaprogramming" title="Metaprogramming">metaprogramming</a>)</li>

<li>OpenC++</li>

<li><a href="Forth_(programming_language)" title="Forth (programming language)">Forth</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Racket_(programming_language)" title="Racket (programming language)">Racket</a></li>

<li><a href="Scheme_(programming_language)" title="Scheme (programming language)">Scheme</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Smalltalk" title="Smalltalk">Smalltalk</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Adaptive_grammar" title="Adaptive grammar">Adaptive grammar</a></li>

<li><a href="Concept_programming" class="mw-redirect" title="Concept programming">Concept programming</a></li>

<li><a href="Dialecting" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialecting">Dialecting</a></li>

<li><a href="Grammar-oriented_programming" title="Grammar-oriented programming">Grammar-oriented programming</a></li>

<li><a href="Language-oriented_programming" title="Language-oriented programming">Language-oriented programming</a></li>

<li><a href="Homoiconicity" title="Homoiconicity">Homoiconicity</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-Standish1975-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Standish1975_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Standish1975_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Standish1975_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Standish, Thomas A., "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7f11/082b409647e8d50dadd3a369a10278b5890f.pdf">Extensibility in Programming Language Design</a>", <i>SIGPLAN Notices</i> 10 no. 7 (July 1975), pp. 18–21.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Wilson2005-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wilson2005_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gregory V. Wilson, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.453.3676&rep=rep1&type=pdf">Extensible Programming for the 21st Century</a>", <i>ACM Queue</i> 2 no. 9 (Dec/Jan 2004–2005).</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Sammet1969-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sammet1969_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sammet, Jean E., <i>Programming Languages: History and Fundamentals</i>, Prentice-Hall, 1969, section III.7.2</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-McIlroy1960-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McIlroy1960_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McIlroy, M.D., "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=367223">Macro Instruction Extensions of Compiler Languages</a>", <i>Communications of the ACM</i> 3 no. 4 (April 1960), pp. 214–220.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Brooker&Morris1962-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brooker&Morris1962_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brooker, R.A. and Morris, D., "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=321106">A General Translation Program for Phrase Structure Languages</a>", <i>Journal of the ACM</i> 9 no. 1 (January 1962), pp. 1–10. The paper was received in 1960.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Christensen&Shaw1969-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Christensen&Shaw1969_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christensen, C. and Shaw, C.J., eds., Proceedings of the Extensible Languages Symposium, <i>SIGPLAN Notices</i> 4 no. 8 (August 1969).</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Schuman1971-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Schuman1971_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schuman, S.A., ed., Proceedings of the International Symposium on Extensible Languages, <i>SIGPLAN Notices</i> 6 no. 12 (December 1971).</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Harrison1969-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Harrison1969_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harrison, M.C., in "Panel on the Concept of Extensibility", pp. 53–54 of the 1969 symposium.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Guarino1978-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Guarino1978_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Guarino, L.R., "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cds.cern.ch/record/119689">The Evolution of Abstraction in Programming Languages</a>", <i>CMU-CS-78-120</i>, Department of Computer Science, Carnegie-Mellon University, Pennsylvania, 22 May 1978.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Gabriel1989-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gabriel1989_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gabriel, Richard P., ed., "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=66092">Draft Report on Requirements for a Common Prototyping System</a>", <i>SIGPLAN Notices</i> 24 no. 3 (March 1989), pp. 93ff.</span>

</li>

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</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://coq.inria.fr/refman/user-extensions/syntax-extensions.html">"Syntax extensions and notation scopes – Coq 8.17.0 documentation"</a>. <i>coq.inria.fr</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-05-25</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Zingaro2007-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Zingaro2007_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zingaro, Daniel, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.69.2848&rep=rep1&type=pdf">Modern Extensible Languages</a>", SQRL Report 47 McMaster University (October 2007), page 16.</span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General">General</h3></div>

<ol><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050209071400/http://www.acmqueue.com/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=247&page=1">Greg Wilson's Article in ACM Queue</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://developers.slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=05/01/18/2157249&from=rss">Slashdot Discussion</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cas.mcmaster.ca/sqrl/papers/SQRLreport47.pdf">Modern Extensible Languages</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110612014339/http://www.cas.mcmaster.ca/sqrl/papers/SQRLreport47.pdf">Archived</a> 2011-06-12 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – A paper from <a href="Daniel_Zingaro" title="Daniel Zingaro">Daniel Zingaro</a></li></ol>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tools">Tools</h3></div>

<ol><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.meta-language.net/">MetaL</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050220100913/http://pyre.third-bit.com/pipermail/extprog/2005-January/000019.html">an extensible programming compiler engine implementation</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sourceforge.net/projects/extprosys/">XPS</a> – eXtensible Programming System (in development)</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jetbrains.com/mps/">MPS</a> – JetBrains Metaprogramming system</li></ol>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Languages_with_extensible_syntax">Languages with extensible syntax</h3></div>

<ol><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://openzz.sourceforge.net/">OpenZz</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cs.nyu.edu/rgrimm/xtc/">xtc – eXTensible C</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://github.com/pannous/english-script">English-script</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050622032429/http://nemerle.org/Macros">Nemerle Macros</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050817205802/http://boo.codehaus.org/Syntactic+Macros">Boo Syntactic Macros</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061022071450/http://suif.stanford.edu/">Stanford University Intermediate Format compiler</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://seed7.sourceforge.net/">Seed7 – The extensible programming language</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://github.com/chrisseaton/katahdin">Katahdin</a> – a language with syntax and semantics that are mutable at runtime</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pi-programming.org/What.html">π</a> – a language with extensible syntax, implemented using an <a href="Earley_parser" title="Earley parser">Earley parser</a></li></ol>

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</style><div id="Programming_paradigms_(Comparison_by_language)368" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Programming paradigms</a> (<a href="Comparison_of_multi-paradigm_programming_languages" title="Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages">Comparison by language</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Imperative_programming" title="Imperative programming">Imperative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Structured_programming" title="Structured programming">Structured</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Jackson_structured_programming" title="Jackson structured programming">Jackson structures</a></li>

<li><a href="Block_(programming)" title="Block (programming)">Block-structured</a></li>

<li><a href="Modular_programming" title="Modular programming">Modular</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-structured_programming" title="Non-structured programming">Non-structured</a></li>

<li><a href="Procedural_programming" title="Procedural programming">Procedural</a></li>

<li><a href="Programming_in_the_large_and_programming_in_the_small" title="Programming in the large and programming in the small">Programming in the large and in the small</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_by_contract" title="Design by contract">Design by contract</a></li>

<li><a href="Invariant-based_programming" title="Invariant-based programming">Invariant-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Nested_function" title="Nested function">Nested function</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">Object-oriented</a><br>(<a href="Comparison_of_programming_languages_(object-oriented_programming)" title="Comparison of programming languages (object-oriented programming)">comparison</a>, <a href="List_of_object-oriented_programming_languages" title="List of object-oriented programming languages">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Class-based_programming" title="Class-based programming">Class-based</a>, <a href="Prototype-based_programming" title="Prototype-based programming">Prototype-based</a>, <a href="Object-based_language" title="Object-based language">Object-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Agent-oriented_programming" title="Agent-oriented programming">Agent</a></li>

<li><a href="Immutable_object" title="Immutable object">Immutable object</a></li>

<li><a href="Persistent_programming_language" title="Persistent programming language">Persistent</a></li>

<li><a href="Uniform_function_call_syntax" title="Uniform function call syntax">Uniform function call syntax</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Declarative_programming" title="Declarative programming">Declarative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Functional_programming" title="Functional programming">Functional</a><br>(<a href="Comparison_of_functional_programming_languages" title="Comparison of functional programming languages">comparison</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Recursion_(computer_science)" title="Recursion (computer science)">Recursive</a></li>

<li><a href="Anonymous_function" title="Anonymous function">Anonymous function</a> (<a href="Partial_application" title="Partial application">Partial application</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Higher-order_programming" title="Higher-order programming">Higher-order</a></li>

<li><a href="Purely_functional_programming" title="Purely functional programming">Purely functional</a></li>

<li><a href="Total_functional_programming" title="Total functional programming">Total</a></li>

<li><a href="Strict_programming_language" title="Strict programming language">Strict</a></li>

<li><a href="Generalized_algebraic_data_type" title="Generalized algebraic data type">GADTs</a></li>

<li><a href="Dependent_type" title="Dependent type">Dependent types</a></li>

<li><a href="Functional_logic_programming" title="Functional logic programming">Functional logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Tacit_programming" title="Tacit programming">Point-free style</a></li>

<li><a href="Expression-oriented_programming_language" title="Expression-oriented programming language">Expression-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Applicative_programming_language" title="Applicative programming language">Applicative</a>, <a href="Concatenative_programming_language" title="Concatenative programming language">Concatenative</a></li>

<li><a href="Function-level_programming" title="Function-level programming">Function-level</a>, <a href="Value-level_programming" title="Value-level programming">Value-level</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Dataflow_programming" title="Dataflow programming">Dataflow</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Flow-based_programming" title="Flow-based programming">Flow-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Reactive_programming" title="Reactive programming">Reactive</a> (<a href="Functional_reactive_programming" title="Functional reactive programming">Functional reactive</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Signal_programming" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal programming">Signals</a></li>

<li><a href="Stream_processing" title="Stream processing">Streams</a></li>

<li><a href="Synchronous_programming_language" title="Synchronous programming language">Synchronous</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Logic_programming" title="Logic programming">Logic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abductive_logic_programming" title="Abductive logic programming">Abductive logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Answer_set_programming" title="Answer set programming">Answer set</a></li>

<li><a href="Constraint_programming" title="Constraint programming">Constraint</a> (<a href="Constraint_logic_programming" title="Constraint logic programming">Constraint logic</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Inductive_logic_programming" title="Inductive logic programming">Inductive logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Nondeterministic_programming" title="Nondeterministic programming">Nondeterministic</a></li>

<li><a href="Ontology_language" title="Ontology language">Ontology</a></li>

<li><a href="Probabilistic_logic_programming" title="Probabilistic logic programming">Probabilistic logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Query_language" title="Query language">Query</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Domain-specific_language" title="Domain-specific language">DSL</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Algebraic_modeling_language" title="Algebraic modeling language">Algebraic modeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Array_programming" title="Array programming">Array</a></li>

<li><a href="Automata-based_programming" title="Automata-based programming">Automata-based</a> (<a href="Action_language" title="Action language">Action</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Command_language" title="Command language">Command</a> (<a href="Spacecraft_command_language" title="Spacecraft command language">Spacecraft</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Differentiable_programming" title="Differentiable programming">Differentiable</a></li>

<li><a href="Grammar-oriented_programming" title="Grammar-oriented programming">Grammar-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Interface_description_language" title="Interface description language">Interface description</a></li>

<li><a href="Language-oriented_programming" title="Language-oriented programming">Language-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="List_comprehension" title="List comprehension">List comprehension</a></li>

<li><a href="Modeling_language" title="Modeling language">Modeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Natural-language_programming" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural-language programming">Natural language</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-English-based_programming_languages" title="Non-English-based programming languages">Non-English-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Page_description_language" title="Page description language">Page description</a></li>

<li><a href="Pipeline_(software)" title="Pipeline (software)">Pipes</a> and <a href="Filter_(software)" title="Filter (software)">filters</a></li>

<li><a href="Probabilistic_programming" title="Probabilistic programming">Probabilistic</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_programming" title="Quantum programming">Quantum</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_programming_language" title="Scientific programming language">Scientific</a></li>

<li><a href="Scripting_language" title="Scripting language">Scripting</a></li>

<li><a href="Set_theoretic_programming" title="Set theoretic programming">Set-theoretic</a></li>

<li><a href="Simulation_language" title="Simulation language">Simulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Stack-oriented_programming" title="Stack-oriented programming">Stack-based</a></li>

<li><a href="System_programming_language" title="System programming language">System</a></li>

<li><a href="Tactile_programming_language" title="Tactile programming language">Tactile</a></li>

<li><a href="Template_processor" title="Template processor">Templating</a></li>

<li><a href="Transformation_language" title="Transformation language">Transformation</a> (<a href="Graph_rewriting" title="Graph rewriting">Graph rewriting</a>, <a href="Production_system_(computer_science)" title="Production system (computer science)">Production</a>, <a href="Pattern_matching" title="Pattern matching">Pattern</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Visual_programming_language" title="Visual programming language">Visual</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Concurrent_computing" title="Concurrent computing">Concurrent</a>,<br><a href="Distributed_computing" title="Distributed computing">distributed</a>,<br><a href="Parallel_computing" title="Parallel computing">parallel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Actor_model" title="Actor model">Actor-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Automatic_mutual_exclusion" title="Automatic mutual exclusion">Automatic mutual exclusion</a></li>

<li><a href="Choreographic_programming" title="Choreographic programming">Choreographic programming</a></li>

<li><a href="Concurrent_logic_programming" title="Concurrent logic programming">Concurrent logic</a> (<a href="Concurrent_constraint_logic_programming" title="Concurrent constraint logic programming">Concurrent constraint logic</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Concurrent_object-oriented_programming" title="Concurrent object-oriented programming">Concurrent OO</a></li>

<li><a href="Macroprogramming" title="Macroprogramming">Macroprogramming</a></li>

<li><a href="Multitier_programming" title="Multitier programming">Multitier programming</a></li>

<li><a href="Organic_computing" title="Organic computing">Organic computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Parallel_programming_model" title="Parallel programming model">Parallel programming models</a></li>

<li><a href="Partitioned_global_address_space" title="Partitioned global address space">Partitioned global address space</a></li>

<li><a href="Process-oriented_programming" title="Process-oriented programming">Process-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Relativistic_programming" title="Relativistic programming">Relativistic programming</a></li>

<li><a href="Service-oriented_programming" title="Service-oriented programming">Service-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Structured_concurrency" title="Structured concurrency">Structured concurrency</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Metaprogramming" title="Metaprogramming">Metaprogramming</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Attribute-oriented_programming" title="Attribute-oriented programming">Attribute-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Automatic_programming" title="Automatic programming">Automatic</a> (<a href="Inductive_programming" title="Inductive programming">Inductive</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Dynamic_programming_language" title="Dynamic programming language">Dynamic</a></li>

<li><a href="Generic_programming" title="Generic programming">Generic</a></li>

<li><a href="Homoiconicity" title="Homoiconicity">Homoiconicity</a></li>

<li><a href="Interactive_programming" title="Interactive programming">Interactive</a></li>

<li><a href="Macro_(computer_science)" title="Macro (computer science)">Macro</a> (<a href="Hygienic_macro" title="Hygienic macro">Hygienic</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Metalinguistic_abstraction" title="Metalinguistic abstraction">Metalinguistic abstraction</a></li>

<li><a href="Multi-stage_programming" title="Multi-stage programming">Multi-stage</a></li>

<li><a href="Program_synthesis" title="Program synthesis">Program synthesis</a> (<a href="Bayesian_program_synthesis" title="Bayesian program synthesis">Bayesian</a>, <a href="Inferential_programming" title="Inferential programming">Inferential</a>, <a href="Programming_by_demonstration" title="Programming by demonstration">by demonstration</a>, <a href="Programming_by_example" title="Programming by example">by example</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Reflective_programming" title="Reflective programming">Reflective</a></li>

<li><a href="Self-modifying_code" title="Self-modifying code">Self-modifying code</a></li>

<li><a href="Symbolic_programming" title="Symbolic programming">Symbolic</a></li>

<li><a href="Template_metaprogramming" title="Template metaprogramming">Template</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Separation_of_concerns" title="Separation of concerns">Separation<br>of concerns</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aspect-oriented_programming" title="Aspect-oriented programming">Aspects</a></li>

<li><a href="Component-based_software_engineering" title="Component-based software engineering">Components</a></li>

<li><a href="Data-driven_programming" title="Data-driven programming">Data-driven</a></li>

<li><a href="Data-oriented_design" title="Data-oriented design">Data-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Event-driven_programming" title="Event-driven programming">Event-driven</a></li>

<li><a href="Feature-oriented_programming" title="Feature-oriented programming">Features</a></li>

<li><a href="Literate_programming" title="Literate programming">Literate</a></li>

<li><a href="Role-oriented_programming" title="Role-oriented programming">Roles</a></li>

<li><a href="Subject-oriented_programming" title="Subject-oriented programming">Subjects</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Types_of_programming_languages107" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Types_of_programming_languages107" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Types of programming languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Level</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Machine_code" title="Machine code">Machine</a></li>

<li><a href="Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">Assembly</a></li>

<li><a href="Compiled_language" title="Compiled language">Compiled</a></li>

<li><a href="Interpreted_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpreted language">Interpreted</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Low-level_programming_language" title="Low-level programming language">Low-level</a></li>

<li><a href="High-level_programming_language" title="High-level programming language">High-level</a></li>

<li><a href="Very_high-level_programming_language" title="Very high-level programming language">Very high-level</a></li>

<li><a href="Esoteric_programming_language" title="Esoteric programming language">Esoteric</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Programming_language_generations" title="Programming language generations">Generation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="First-generation_programming_language" title="First-generation programming language">First</a></li>

<li><a href="Second-generation_programming_language" title="Second-generation programming language">Second</a></li>

<li><a href="Third-generation_programming_language" title="Third-generation programming language">Third</a></li>

<li><a href="Fourth-generation_programming_language" title="Fourth-generation programming language">Fourth</a></li>

<li><a href="Fifth-generation_programming_language" title="Fifth-generation programming language">Fifth</a></li></ul>

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